fig1

Figure 1. Flowchart of the study participants. Of 227 patients screened for eligibility, 44 were excluded because the initial ablation modality was cryoablation rather than MWA, leaving 183 eligible patients (130 robotic-assisted, 53 freehand). After 1:1 PSM with a caliper width of 0.1, 43 patients remained in each group (total n = 86). The matched cohort was used for primary comparative analysis, including multivariable logistic regression. Exploratory subgroup analyses were performed in the full pre-matching cohort (n = 183), comparing puncture deviation and needle adjustments across subgroups defined by lesion diameter, puncture distance, and lesion location. PSM: Propensity score matching; BMI: body mass index; FEV₁: forced expiratory volume in one second; FVC: forced vital capacity; CT: computed tomography; MWA: microwave ablation.