fig6

Figure 6. Performance of the incremental learning framework on the sample molecules across multiple metal substrates. (A) Visualization of molecular detection results for 4,4’-di(pyridin-4-yl)-1,1’-biphenyl in STM images acquired from Au(111), Ag(111), and Cu(111) surfaces. All STM images span 20 nm × 20 nm. Bounding boxes highlight the successfully identified molecules. In the model visualization, yellow and orange represent gold (Au) and copper (Cu) atoms, respectively; (B) Quantitative performance comparison across substrates using mAP@0.5, showing the model’s ability to maintain high detection accuracy (0.81, 0.95, and 0.99) under varying imaging conditions. STM: Scanning tunneling microscopy.