fig9

From: Uncertainty-aware physics-guided digital twins for lithium-ion batteries: toward integrated health, safety, and fast-charging management

Figure 9. Benchmarking, standardization, and future directions. (A) Real-world DC fast-charging capacity distribution across connector power ratings; (B) Temperature-dependent real-world charging-profile heterogeneity. Figure 9A and B is reprinted from Ref.^[166], under the CC BY 4.0 license. (C) Vehicle-level SOH standardization based on scalable and reproducible measurement procedures; (D) Differential-voltage transfer from cell-level diagnostics to pack-level EV measurement. Figure 9C and D is reprinted from Ref.^[42], under the CC BY 4.0 license; (E) Online fault-diagnosis data flow and field dataset structure under stochastic operating conditions; (F) ROC and RMSE-based evaluation of fault detection and prediction accuracy. Figure 9E and F are reprinted with permission from Ref.^[117]. Copyright © 2025 Springer Nature; (G) Pack-voltage variability under fixed voltage windows, illustrating limits of nonstandardized SOH comparison. Figure 9G is reprinted from Ref.^[42], under the CC BY 4.0 license; (H) Benchmark matrix and roadmap for deployable battery twins, spanning deployment realism, system scale, calibration, robustness, latency, and auditability. SOC: State of change; TCP: transmission control protocol; IP: internet protocol; TSP: telematics service provider; SOH: state of health; EV: electric vehicle; RMSE: root mean square error.