fig3

From: Uncertainty-aware physics-guided digital twins for lithium-ion batteries: toward integrated health, safety, and fast-charging management

Figure 3. Multimodal observability for hidden electrochemical, thermal, and mechanical states. (A) Operando differential-pressure sensing configuration for pouch cells; (B) Pressure-change mechanism distinguishing lithium plating from intercalation; (C) Pressure-derived lithium-plating threshold from the dP/dQ profile. Figure 3A-C is reprinted from Ref.^[7], under the CC BY 4.0 license; (D) Thermal-wave unit-cell and contact model for porous electrodes; (E) Equivalent thermal network for separator-electrode contact; (F) Attachable thermal-wave sensing for pathway-resolved degradation interpretation. Figure 3D-F is reprinted from Ref.^[8], under the CC BY 4.0 license; (G) Ultrasound scanning and gated signal acquisition for operando plating visualization; (H) Signal-to-image reconstruction for ultrasound imaging. Figure 3G and H is reprinted from Ref.^[9], under the CC BY 4.0 license; (I) Low-frequency electromagnetic and equivalent-circuit interpretation of Li-metal plating; (J) High-frequency finite element method (FEM) analysis of current-density and electromagnetic-field response to plating; (K) Terminal-impedance response over a wide frequency range. Figure 3I-K is reprinted from Ref.^[10], under the CC BY 4.0 license. SOC: State of change; AI: artificial intelligence; RC: resistance-capacitance; SEI: solid electrolyte interphase; DC: direct current.